Hoe leren kinderen het beste

Deelvraag

Hoe leren kinderen het beste?

• Wat heeft samenwerken voor impact op het leerproces?
• Wat zijn de verschillende leermethodes / leerstijlen? VAK?
• Wat voor digitale leer omgevingen bestaan er al en waarom zijn die succesvol?
• Gamification & Competition?
• Wat voor soort games of game mechanics zijn het beste om mee te leren? CT?
• Wat heeft Praise voor invloed op leren?

Door inzicht te krijgen in de beste leermethoden voor kinderen kan ik ervoor zorgen dat mijn VR oplossing bijdraagt aan het leerproces en aansluit bij de leerbehoefte van kinderen. Zo vergroot ik de kans dat de kinderen gemotiveerd blijven en effectief leren. Door te kijken wat voor impact methodes zoals gamification, competition en praise hebben op het leerproces kan ik bekijken of dit elementen zijn die ook in mijn concept voor kunnen komen.

De methodes die ik hiervoor wil gebruiken zijn:

• Benchmark Creation
• Trend Analysis
• Expert Interview
• Interview
• Literature study

Leren Programmeren

Een studie gedaan in 2020 over het gebruik van metaforen en scratch als programmeer leermethode voor kinderen zegt het volgende: “These results suggest that using metaphors and Scratch is useful for teaching computer programming concepts to Primary Education students, and for improving students’ Computational thinking, providing a positive answer to the research question. It contributes to the area of study exploring how to develop Computational Thinking by covering gaps in methodologies, and uses, for the first time, metaphors to teach basic programming concepts to Primary Education Students, together with Scratch.” (Pérez-Marín et al., 2020)

Pair Programming

Om te kijken wat voor voordelen pair programming zou kunnen hebben voor mijn concept heb ik onderzoek gedaan naar de effecten van pair programming op motivatie en prestatie.

“A review of 73 pair programming studies identified several benefits of this practice, including technical productivity (time spent on the program), improved program/design quality, better aca-demic performance, and greater perceived satisfaction. Pair programming improved retention within the CS major, which was defined as students who were more likely to pursue a higher level programming course and/or eventually to pursue a degree in CS.” (Dongo, T. A., Reed, A. H., & O’Hara, M. T. 2016)

“The researchers concluded, from their observations and student survey responses, that students in pairs shared ideas that helped them learn from each other. Sharing ideas and learning from a part-ner have previously been identified as benefits of pair programming. The goal of our study was to determine if pair programming would allow MIS students to become more proficient after completing one software course in four broad categories: technical productivity, program/design quality, academic performance, and perceived satisfaction. Our results indicate academic performance in pairs was better; overall the pairs in both experiments performed better than the individuals even though some of the individuals were “A” students in the course. Technical productivity and program/design quality was generally better with the pairs. Only pairs in these experiments were able to complete the assignment successfully using high-level concepts such as sub-procedures and producing correct results without crashing the program. In both experiments we observed students who had not worked together previously but collaborated well during the experiment. We even had some pairs in both experiments that were laughing and enjoying themselves while they worked. We hope this type of pair programming experience will prepare the students for working collaboratively in the workplace where pair programming is being used as a part of extreme programming practices” (Dongo et al., 2016)

“The significant benefits of pair programming are that:

• Many mistakes get caught as they are being typed in rather than in QA test or in the field (continuous code reviews).
• The end defect content is statistically lower (continuous code reviews).
• The designs are better and code length shorter (ongoing brainstorming and pair relaying).
• The team solves problems faster (pair relaying).
• The people learn significantly more, about the system and about software development (line-of-sight learning).
• The project ends up with multiple people understanding each piece of the system;
• The people learn to work together and talk more often together, giving better information flow and team dynamics;
• People enjoy their work more.
  The development cost for these benefits is not the 100% that might be expected, but is
  approximately 15%. This is repaid in shorter and less expensive testing, quality assurance, and field support.” (Cockburn & Williams, 2000)

Collaborative Learning

Om te kijken wat voor voordelen collaborative learning zou kunnen hebben voor mijn concept heb ik onderzoek gedaan naar de effecten van collaborative learning op motivatie en prestatie.

“Collaboration had significant positive effects on knowledge gain, skill acquisition , and student perception in computer-based learning settings by stimulating students to discuss their understandings with peers, explain and elaborate their ideas to others, reflect on peers’ feedback, learn from others, and come up with problem solutions that might not have been possible alone” (Chen et al., 2018)”

“Collavorative Learning (CL) involves groups of learners working together toward a common goal. Learning in groups has higher achievements and productivity. This paper outlined the potential advantages and put them in four categories of: social, psychological, academic and assessment benefits. In a brief review, CL develops social interactions, increases positive social behaviors such as honor, unity, friendliness and reduces violence. From the psychological aspect, CL increases self-esteem and more involves the members to take part and responsibility for the outcomes. CL has many academic advantages as it improves the skills of problem-solving and increases high level of thinking. CL techniques use many alternate assessments which include both group and individual assessments.” (Marjan Laal et al., 2013)

“Numerous benefits have been described for CL (Pantiz, T., 1999). A good way for organizing the benefits of CL, are to put them in categories. Johnsons (1989) and Pantiz (1999) list over 50 benefits for CL. The list below is based on their works. This paper summarizes them into four major categories of; social, psychological, academic and assessment, as in following:

Social benefits;

• CL helps to develop a social support system for learners;
• CL leads to build diversity understanding among students and staff;
• CL establishes a positive atmosphere for modelling and practicing cooperation, and;
• CL develops learning communities.

Psychological benefits;

• Student-centered instruction increases students’ self esteem;
• Cooperation reduces anxiety, and;
• CL develops positive attitudes towards teachers.

Academic benefits;

• CL Promotes critical thinking skills
• Involves students actively in the learning process
• Classroom results are improved
• Models appropriate student problem solving techniques
• Large lectures can be personalized
• CL is especially helpful in motivating students in specific curriculum

Alternate student and teacher assessment techniques;

• Collaborative teaching techniques utilize a variety of assessments.” (Marjan Laal et al., 2013)

Gamification

Om te kijken wat voor voordelen gamification zou kunnen hebben voor mijn concept heb ik onderzoek gedaan naar de effecten van gamification op motivatie en prestatie.

“Gamification studies have reported improvements not only in students’ motivation and engagement, but also in their learning achievement. The principle of ‘challenge’ in a gamified system makes a significant contribution to positive learning achievements” (Zainuddin et al., 2020)

“The aim of our study is to investigate the impact of gamification on students’ performances. So, based on our analysis the use of this gamified application presents an improvement regarding the mean values of performances, equal to 34.75%. In addition, the challenge-based gamification may improve students’ performance by up to 89.45% compared to only being present at a lecture.” (Legaki et al., 2020)

“The aim of this study is identifying the influence of gamification activities over the students’ academic success in social studies course, their attitude towards the course and their cooperative learning skills. The study demonstrated that learning processes enriched by gamification activities contributed to student success. The effect of gamification activities on the cooperative learning skills of the students is another subproblem of this study. The results of the study showed that the experimental implementation had a positive influence over the students’ attitude towards cooperative learning.” (Öztürk & Korkmaz, 2019)

“The results showed that the experimental group had significantly lower levels of stress and anxiety symptoms than the control group after exposure to the gamified learning environment. Additionally, the experimental group had significantly higher levels of self-efficacy and academic achievements than the control group. This finding suggested that gamification can be an effective method for reducing stress and anxiety symptoms and increasing self-efficacy and academic achievements among university students.” (alsswey & Malak, 2024)

“One of the benefits of gamification in the teaching-learning process is not only that it significantly increases student motivation and engagement, but it also fosters collaboration, improves knowledge retention, and develops key skills such as problem-solving and decision-making” (Jaramillo-Mediavilla et al., 2024)

Bad side:
 ”Harmful consequences, as the name suggest, are questionable and potentially unethical side effects of the gamified features. For example, as pointed out by Bui et al. (2015), gamified solutions could encourage users to perform behaviours only when rewarded. Furthermore, losses in productivity can be faced when gami-fied elements distracts users from the main purpose of the system” (Sami Hyrynsalmi et al., 2017)

Competition

Om te kijken wat voor voordelen competition zou kunnen hebben voor mijn concept heb ik onderzoek gedaan naar de effecten van competition op motivatie en prestatie.

“A simple appraisal indicates that over one-third (of the 206 separate estimates) report a statistically significant correlation between increased competition and higher public school achievement” (Belfield & Levin, 2002)

“Fundamentally, competition should be anticipated to raise efficiency levels in terms of output per unit of cost or cost per unit of output. Indeed, the evidence above is suggestive of greater efficiency: competition appears to raise performance, along with neutral or ambiguous effects on spending.” (Belfield & Levin, 2002)

“In sum, our research suggests that social motivation—specifically, competition—can have strong effects on attention and memory. Competition in a physical effort setting may increase attention, while the presence of a competitor may have detrimental effects on memory and performance. These findings present strong implications for education, the workplace, and other real-world settings involving social interaction.“ (DiMenichi & Tricomi, 2015)

“Research shows that competition can drive attention, physical effort, and learning. The social motivation of competing against one’s peers can challenge a student to work much harder on his or her tasks than he or she would independently feel compelled to do so.
With a challenge in mind, a student might put in double the work and retain double the information in order to obtain the upper hand. This is a fantastic way to encourage students to get engaged and have fun in the process.” (The Pros and Cons of Academic Competitions, n.d.)

“Competition can be used as a mean to encourage students in a positive way. However, this requires some very important aspects to be taken into account. It should not imply negative stress on the participants. In order to achieve this, the results of the competition should not be the most importance factor for the students.” (Kristensen et al., 2015)

Bestaande digitale leeromgevingen

Khan Academy:

• Succesvol vanwege gratis, uitgebreide lessen in vele vakken
• Gebruikt korte video’s en interactieve oefeningen
• Leermethode: Gepersonaliseerd, adaptief leren

ABCmouse:

• Populair bij jonge kinderen (2-8 jaar)
• Succesvol door spelenderwijs leren met beloningssysteem
• Leermethode: Gamification van educatieve inhoud

Duolingo:

• Effectief voor taalonderwijs
• Succesvol door laagdrempelige, korte lessen en gamification
• Leermethode: Spaced repetition en contextgebaseerd leren
• Duolingo is een effectief platform voor het leren van nieuwe talen. Duolingo herhaalt constant materiaal uit gehaalde lessen om zo voor herhaling te zorgen. Lessen zijn opgebroken in verschillende kleine stukken en een gebruiker krijgt dezelfde woorden in verschillende context over meerdere dagen. Elke les kost maar een paar minuten om te halen en zo past het ook bij mensen met drukke schema’s.

Scratch:

• Ontwikkeld door MIT voor programmeeronderwijs
• Succesvol door visuele, blok-gebaseerde programmeeromgeving
• Leermethode: Project-gebaseerd leren en creative coding

IXL:

• Biedt gepersonaliseerde oefeningen voor verschillende vakken
• Succesvol door adaptieve technologie en real-time feedback
• Leermethode: Mastery-based learning

Puzzel Games

Om te kijken wat voor voordelen puzzel games zou kunnen hebben voor mijn concept heb ik onderzoek gedaan naar de effecten van puzzel games op motivatie en prestatie.

Decompositeit

• Wat het is: Het opdelen van complexe problemen in kleinere, beheersbare delen.
• Hoe puzzelspellen helpen: Spelers moeten vaak grote problemen opsplitsen in kleinere stappen om tot een oplossing te komen.
• Voorbeeld: Een complexe puzzel oplossen door eerst de randen te maken, dan vergelijkbare kleuren te groeperen.

Patroonherkenning

• Wat het is: Het identificeren van overeenkomsten en trends in problemen.
• Hoe puzzelspellen helpen: Spelers leren patronen te herkennen in puzzelelementen of oplossingsstrategieën.
• Voorbeeld: Het herkennen van herhalende secties in een codefragment om een lus te implementeren.

Algoritmisch Denken

• Wat het is: Het ontwikkelen van stap-voor-stap oplossingen voor problemen.
• Hoe puzzelspellen helpen: Spelers creëren vaak een reeks acties om een puzzel op te lossen, vergelijkbaar met het schrijven van een algoritme.
• Voorbeeld: Het plannen van een reeks bewegingen in een doolhofpuzzel

Debugging en Probleemoplossing

• Wat het is: Het identificeren en corrigeren van fouten in een oplossing.
• Hoe puzzelspellen helpen: Spelers moeten vaak hun aanpak herzien en fouten corrigeren om tot de juiste oplossing te komen.
• Voorbeeld: Het vinden en corrigeren van een verkeerd geplaatst puzzelstuk

Logisch Redeneren

• Wat het is: Het gebruik van logica om conclusies te trekken en beslissingen te nemen.
• Hoe puzzelspellen helpen: Puzzels vereisen vaak logische deductie om oplossingen te vinden.
• Voorbeeld: Het gebruik van logica om te bepalen welke codeblokken nodig zijn om een specifiek resultaat te bereiken.

Iteratief Verbeteren

• Wat het is: Het geleidelijk verbeteren van een oplossing door herhaalde pogingen.
• Hoe puzzelspellen helpen: Spelers leren van mislukte pogingen en passen hun strategie aan.
• Voorbeeld: Het verfijnen van een oplossing door meerdere iteraties, vergelijkbaar met het optimaliseren van code.

Puzzel games hebben een impact op Computational Thinking (CT).

“The literature reviewed certainly points towards a strong case for the inclusion of puzzle based games for the teaching of programming. It can be concluded that games do provide a good environment for developing “thinking and problem-solving skills” that will benefit the student and help them “gain in mental maturity.” (Moursund 2006) Van Eck (2006) makes a valid point when he dispels the idea “that all games are good for all learners and for all learning outcomes”.”

“Levitin (2005) states that creativity and problem solving are enhanced through the use of puzzles and that puzzles generate more interest for the student thus making them engage with the assigned task. It should also be noted that the definition for Computational Thinking “is defined abstractly at best and covers a wide variety of skills.” (Kazimoglu et al. 2012)”

“This study shows that VR mini-games provide an opportunity to engage learners in an immersive environment while solving different challenges to improve their CT skills and enjoying a contextual expedition within a virtual world. Although the focus was to investigate how users found the VR application useable, findings include feedback from players regarding educational benefits derived from the mini-games.” (Oyelere et al., 2023)

Praise

Om te kijken wat voor voordelen praise zou kunnen hebben voor mijn concept heb ik onderzoek gedaan naar de effecten van praise op motivatie en prestatie.

“In one study, we asked students to agree or disagree with mind-set statements, such as, “Your intelligence is something basic about you that you can’t really change.” Students praised for intelligence agreed with statements like these more than students praised for effort did. In another study, we asked students to define intelligence. Students praised for intelligence made significantly more references to innate, fixed capacity, whereas the students praised for effort made more references to skills, knowledge, and areas they could change through effort and learning. Thus, we found that praise for intelligence tended to put students in a fixed mind-set (intelligence is fixed, and you have it), whereas praise for effort tended to put them in a growth mind-set (you’re developing these skills because you’re working hard)

We then offered students a chance to work on either a challenging task that they could learn from or an easy one that ensured error-free performance. Most of those praised for intelligence wanted the easy task, whereas most of those praised for effort wanted the challenging task and the opportunity to learn.

Next, the students worked on some challenging problems. As a group, students who had been praised for their intelligence lost their confidence in their ability and their enjoyment of the task as soon as they began to struggle with the problem. If success meant they were smart, then struggling meant they were not. The whole point of intelligence praise is to boost confidence and motivation, but both were gone in a flash. Only the effort-praised kids remained, on the whole, confident and eager.

When the problems were made somewhat easier again, students praised for intelligence did poorly, having lost their confidence and motivation. As a group, they did worse than they had done initially on these same types of problems. The students praised for effort showed excellent performance and continued to improve” (Dweck, 2008)

Bronnen

Bronnen

Dongo, T. A., Reed, A. H., & O’Hara, M. T. (2016). Exploring Pair Programming Benefits for MIS Majors. ResearchGate; Informing Science Institute. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320654268_Exploring_Pair_Programming_Benefits_for_MIS_Majors

Cockburn, A., & Williams, L. (2000, February 26). The Costs and Benefits of Pair Programming. ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2333697_The_Costs_and_Benefits_of_Pair_Programming

Chen, J., Wang, M., Kirschner, P., & Tsai, C.-C. (2018, July 30). The Role of Collaboration, Computer Use, Learning Environments, and Supporting Strategies in CSCL: A… ResearchGate; American Educational Research Association (AERA). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326711834_The_Role_of_Collaboration_Computer_Use_Learning_Environments_and_Supporting_Strategies_in_CSCL_A_Meta-Analysis

Marjan Laal, Azadeh Sadat Naseri, Mozhgan Laal, & Zhina Khattami- Kermanshahi. (2013, October 21). What do we Achieve from Learning in Collaboration? ResearchGate; Elsevier BV. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259081649_What_do_we_Achieve_from_Learning_in_Collaboration

Zainuddin, Z., Chu, S. K. W., Shujahat, M., & Perera, C. J. (2020). The impact of gamification on learning and instruction: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Educational Research Review, 30(2020), 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100326

Legaki, N.-Z., Xi, N., Hamari, J., Karpouzis, K., & Assimakopoulos, V. (2020). The effect of challenge-based gamification on learning: An experiment in the context of statistics education. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 144, 102496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2020.102496

Öztürk, Ç., & Korkmaz, Ö. (2019). The Effect of Gamification Activities on Students’ Academic Achievements in Social Studies Course, Attitudes towards the Course and Cooperative Learning Skills. Participatory Educational Research, 7(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.20.1.7.1

alsswey, A., & Malak, Malakeh. Z. (2024). Effect of using gamification of “Kahoot!” as a learning method on stress symptoms, anxiety symptoms, self-efficacy, and academic achievement among university students. Learning and Motivation, 87, 101993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.101993

Jaramillo-Mediavilla, L., Basantes-Andrade, A., Cabezas-González, M., & Casillas-Martín, S. (2024). Impact of Gamification on Motivation and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review. Education Sciences, 14(6), 639. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14060639

Sami Hyrynsalmi, Jouni Smed, & Kimppa, K. K. (2017, May 9). The Dark Side of Gamification: How We Should Stop Worrying and Study also the Negative Impacts of Bringing… ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316755065_The_Dark_Side_of_Gamification_How_We_Should_Stop_Worrying_and_Study_also_the_Negative_Impacts_of_Bringing_Game_Design_Elements_to_Everywhere

Belfield, C. R., & Levin, H. M. (2002). The Effects of Competition Between Schools on Educational Outcomes: A Review for the United States. Review of Educational Research, 72(2), 279–341. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543072002279

DiMenichi, B. C., & Tricomi, E. (2015). The power of competition: Effects of social motivation on attention, sustained physical effort, and learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(1282). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01282

The Pros and Cons of Academic Competitions. (n.d.). Www.ahschool.com. https://www.ahschool.com/blog/read-more/~board/blog/post/the-pros-and-cons-of-academic-competitions

Kristensen, F., Troeng, O., Safavi, M., & Narayanan, P. (2015). Competition in higher education – good or bad? Lund University. https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/portalfiles/portal/5680982/8519800.pdf

“Melero et al. (2011) point towards the use of puzzle games in the teaching of programming suggesting that code segments can be designed as specific “puzzle pieces” that can be ultimately collated and joined to derive the solution for a proposed program”

https://researchonline.gcu.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/24517410/B.Law_PaperV6_Puzzle_Games_A_Metaphor_for_Computational_Thinking_BobbyLaw_2_.pdf

Oyelere, A. S., Agbo, F. J., & Oyelere, S. S. (2023). Formative evaluation of immersive virtual reality expedition mini-games to facilitate computational thinking. Computers & Education: X Reality, 2, 100016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cexr.2023.100016

Dweck, C. (2008). The Perils and Promises of Praise. The Perils and Promises of Praise, 65, 34–39. https://teaching.temple.edu/sites/teaching/files/resource/pdf/Dweck-Perils%20%26%20Promises%20of%20Praise.pdf

Pérez-Marín, D., Hijón-Neira, R., Bacelo, A., & Pizarro, C. (2020). Can computational thinking be improved by using a methodology based on metaphors and scratch to teach computer programming to children? Computers in Human Behavior, 105, 105849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.027

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